Our following talk about model of Software Transactional Memory in Haskell will be meaningless without discussing concepts of concurrent Haskell.
Main ideas of concurrent Haskell were described in paper Concurrent Haskell by Simon Peyton Jones, Andrew Gordon and Sigbjorn Finne. In actual fact concurrent Haskell is simple extension of pure lazy-evaluated functional Haskell language. It adds two main new ingredients to Haskell:
- processes, and a mechanism for process initiation
- atomically-mutable state, to support inter-process communication and cooperation
Let's recall what Monad is. Speaking strictly, Monad is tuple (M, return, >>=) where M is type designator, return is operator to wrap our computation into monad entity and >>= or bind operator represents monadic evaluations themselves. Their types are correspondingly
type Monad = M a
(>>=) :: M a → (a → M b) → M b
return :: a → M a
In some it is convenient to use reduced bind operator:
(>>) :: M a → M b → M b
In other words it ignores value wrapped into its first argument.
Most common examples of monads in Haskell are [], Maybe and IO. The last is most interesting for our purposes. In a non-strict language it is completely impractical to perform input/output using “side-effecting functions", because the order in which sub-expressions are evaluated | and indeed whether they are evaluated at all | is determined by the context in which the result of the expression is used, and hence is hard to predict. This difficulty can be addressed by treating an I/O-performing computation as a state transformer; that is, a function that transforms the current state of the world to a new state. In addition, we need the ability for an I/O-performing computation to return a result. This reasoning leads to the following type definition:
type IO a = World -> (a, World)
That is, a value of type IO t takes a world state as input and delivers a modified world state together with a value of type t. Of course, the implementation performs the I/O right away - thereby modifying the state of the world “in place".
We call a value of type IO t an action. Here are two useful complete actions:
hGetChar :: Handle -> IO Char
hPutChar :: Handle -> Char -> IO ()
The action hGetChar reads a character from the specified handle (which identifies some file or other byte stream) and returns it as the result of the action. hPutChar takes a handle and a character and return an action that writes the character to the specified stream.
Actions can be combined in sequences using infix combinators >> and >>= described above. For example here is an action that reads a character from the standard input, and then prints it twice to the standard output:
hGetChar stdin >>= \c ->
hPutChar stdout c >>
hPutChar stdout c
The notation \c->E, for some expression E, denotes a lambda abstraction. In Haskell, the scope of a lambda abstraction extends as far to the right as possible; in this example the body of the \c-abstraction includes everything after the \c. The sequencing combinators, >> and >>=, feed the result state of their left hand argument to the input of their right hand argument, thereby forcing the two actions (via the data dependency) to be performed in the correct order. The combinator >> throws away the result of its first argument, while >>= takes the result of its first argument and passes it on to its second argument. The similarity of monadic I/O-performing programs to imperative programs is no surprise: when performing I/O we specifically want to impose a total order on I/O operations.
It is often also useful to have an action that performs no I/O, and immediately returns a specified value using return operator. For example, an echo action that reads a character, prints it and returns the character read, might look like this:
echo :: IO Char
echo = hGetChar stdin >>= \c →
hPutChar stdout >>
return c
So, the resulting program which can be compiled to do something might look like
main :: IO ()
main = echo >>= \c ->
if c == '\n'
then return ()
else main
In principle, then, a program is just a state transformer that is applied to the real world to give a new world. In practice, however, it is crucial that the side-effects the program specifies are performed incrementally, and not all at once when the program finishes.
2. Processes in Haskell
Concurrent Haskell provides a new primitive forkIO, which starts a concurrent process:
forkIO :: IO () -> IO ()
forkIO is an action which takes an action, a, as its argument and spawns a concurrent process to perform that action. The I/O and other side effects performed by a are interleaved in an unspecified fashion with those that follow the forkIO. Here's an example:
let
-- loop ch prints an infinite sequence of ch's
loop ch = hPutChar stdout ch >> loop ch
in
forkIO (loop 'a') >>
loop 'z'
The forkIO spawns a process which perform the action loop 'a'. Meanwhile, the “parent“ process continues on to perform loop 'z'. The result is than an infinite sequence of interleaved 'a's and 'z's appears on the screen. The exact interleaving is unspecified.
As a more realistic example of forkIO in action a mail tool night incorporate the following loop:
mailLoop
= getButtonPress b >>= \ v ->
case v of
Compose -> forkIO doCompose >>
mailLoop
...other things
doCompose :: IO () -- Pop up and manage
doCompose = ... -- composition window
Here, getButtonPress is very like hGetChar; it awaits the next button press on button b, and then delivers a value indicating which button was pressed. This value is then treated by the case expression. If its value is Compose, then the action doCompose is forked to handle an independent composition window, while the main process continues with the next getButtonPress.
There are some interesting questions related to concurrency in Haskell.
1. Let's imagine that we have to evaluate value named 'c'. In common Haskell this value is represented internally by pointer to some closure which will be called and evaluate this value when someone will need in it. That's the famous Haskell's laziness.
Now each of concurrent processes may need in this value. Then the first who provoked 'c''s evaluation replaces pointer to 'c''s closure to some temporary object named thunk. Thunk indicates that value 'c' is currently evaluating. Other processes wait until evaluation ends.
2. Since the parent and child processes may both mutate (parts of) the same shared state (namely, the world), forkIO immediately introduces non-determinism. For example, if one process decides to read a file, and the other deletes it, the effect of running the program will be unpredictable. While this non-determinism is not desirable, it is not avoidable; indeed, every concurrent language is non-deterministic. The only way to enforce determinism would be by somehow constraining the two processes to work on separate parts of the state (different files, in our example). The trouble is that essentially all the interesting applications of concurrency involve the deliberate and controlled mutation of shared state, such as screen real estate, the file system, or the internal data structures of the program. The right solution, therefore, is to provide mechanisms which allow (though alas they cannot enforce) the safe mutation of shared state section.
3. forkIO is asymmetrical: when a process executes a forkIO, it spawns a child process that executes concurrently with the continued execution of the parent. It would have been possible to design a symmetrical fork, an approach taken by Jones & Hudak:
symFork :: IO a -> IO b -> IO (a,b)
The idea here is symFork p1 p2 is an action that forks two processes, p1 and p2. When both complete, the symFork pairs their results together and returns this pair as its result. We rejected this approach because it forces us to synchronize on the termination of the forked process. If the desired behavior is that the forked process lives as long as it desires, then we have to provide the whole of the rest of the parent as the other argument to symFork, which is extremely inconvenient.
3. Synchronization and communication
To make our processes interact with each other and organize synchronization between them we introduce spectial type
type MVar a
This is simple memory cell which can contain any value of type a or be empty. We define following primitive operations on MVars:
newMVar :: IO (MVar a)
takeMVar :: MVar a -> IO a
putMVar :: MVar a -> a -> IO ()Notice that MVar can be considered in different ways:
as a channel for messages exchange between processes
MVar () is simple semaphor, putMVar denotes rising and takeMVar is sinking
With MVar we now can solve simple problem of “Producer and Customer” in case when Producer produces faster than customer can take. For this we'll make buffered slot CVar for Customer to take from.
type CVar a = (MVar a, -- Producer -> consumer
MVar ()) -- Consumer -> producer
newCVar :: IO (CVar a)
newCVar
= newMVar >>= \ data_var ->
newMVar >>= \ ack_var ->
putMVar ack_var ( ) >>
return (data_var, ack_var)
putCVar :: CVar a -> a -> IO ()
putCVar (data_var,ack_var) val
= takeMVar ack_var >>
putMVar data_var val
getCVar :: CVar a -> IO a
getCVar (data_var,ack_var)
= takeMVar data_var >>= \ val ->
putMVar ack_var () >>
return val
4. Haskell Software transactional Memory (HSTM)
Implementation of transactional memory in Haskell resembles IO abstraction. It introduces terms of special monadic type which represent atomic blocks. It also adds special mechanism to compose two transaction as alternatives. Main characteristics of HSTM look like this:
| Strong or Weak Isolation | Strong |
| Transaction Granularity | Word |
| Direct or Deferred Update | Deferred (cloned replacement) |
| Concurrency Control | Optimistic |
| Synchronization | Blocking |
| Conflict Detection | Late |
| Inconsistent Reads | Inconsistency toleration |
| Conflict Resolution | None |
| Nested Transaction | None (not allowed by type system) |
| Exceptions | Abort |
So, we add new type of terms into language – STM monad. It has semantics similar to IO monad but it “marks” terms which will be treated as atomic blocks. To wrap them into habitual atomic block we use function atomic.
atomic :: STM a → STM a
By analogy with MVar type in plain concurrent Haskell we introduce also TVar type (transactional) to represent values stable against transactional operations.
type TVar a
readTVar :: TVar a → STM a
writeTVar :: TVar a → a → STM()
For example let's consider such variable containing some integer values and operations on it.
type Resource = TVar Int
putR :: Resource -> Int -> STM ()
putR r i = do { v <- readTVar r; writeTVar r (v+i) } The atomic function transactionally committed (or aborted) these updates:
main = do { ...; atomic (putR r 3); ... }
HSTM also introduced an explicit retry statement as a coordination mechanism between transactions. The retry statement aborts the current transaction and prevents it from reexecuting until at least one of the TVars accessed by the transaction changes value. For example,
getR :: Resource → Int → STM ()
getR r i = do { v <- readTVar r
; if (v < i) then retry
else writeTVar r (v-i) }
atomically extracts i units from a Resource. It uses a retry statement to abort an enclosing transaction if the Resource does not contain enough units. If this function executes retry, r is the only TVar read, so the transaction re-executes when r changes value.
HSTM also introduced the binary orElse operator for composing two transactions. This operator first starts its left-hand transaction. If this transaction commits, the orElse operator finishes. However, if this transaction retries, the operator tries the right-hand transaction instead. If this one commits, the orElse operator finishes. If it retries, the entire orElse statement waits for changes in the set of TVars read by both transactions before retrying. For example, this operator turns getR into an operation that returns a true/false success/failure result:
nonBlockGetR :: Resource -> Int ->STM Bool
nonBlockGetR r i = do { getR r i ; return True }‘orElse‘ return false
Notice, that retry operator “retries” largest enclosing term which has STM type.
Some words about implementation. Al transaction treads and writes to TVars deal with special transactional log which hides these variables references form other transactions. When the transaction commits, it first validates its log entries, to ensure that no other transaction modified the TVars values. If valid, the transaction installs the new values in these variables. If validation fails, the log is discarded and the transaction re-executed.
If a transaction invokes retry, the transaction is validated (to avoid retries caused by inconsistent execution) and the log discarded after recording all TVars read by the transaction. The system binds the transaction’s thread to each of these variables. When a transaction updates one of these variables, it also restarts the thread, which re-executes the transaction.
The orElse statement requires a closed nested transaction to surround each of the two alternatives, so that either one can abort without terminating the surrounding transaction. If either transaction completes successfully, its log is merged with the surrounding transaction’s log, which can commit. If either or both transactions invoke retry, the outer transaction waits on the union of the TVars read by the transactions that retried.
5. Garbage Collection in Concurrent Haskell
At the end it would be good to tell some words about garbage collection in Concurrent Haskell. It's interesting problem to collect processes which become “useless”. There is obvious strategy to do it if we ensure, that process we want to collect will not have “side effects” further. We can formulate two rules to do it:
- Running process cannot be collected
- We can collect process which holds some MVar if this variable is now inaccessible for any other non-garbage process.
- When tracing accessible heap objects, treat all runnable processes as roots.
- When some MVar is identified as reachable, identify all processes blocked by it as reachable ones..
List of used papers:
- Simon Peyton Jones, Andrew Gordon, Sigbjorn Finne “Concurrent Haskell”
- Paul Hudak, Simon Peyton Jones, Philip Wadler, Brian Boutel, Jon Fairbairn, Joseph Fasel, María M. Guzmán, Kevin Hammond, John Hughes, Thomas Johnsson, Dick Kieburtz, Rishiyur Nikhil, Will Partain, John Peterson “Report on the programming language Haskell: a non-strict, purely functional language version 1.2”
